What are the organs of the body?

Organs and their functions Vital organs Non-vital organs Organ systems Summary In the human body, there are five vital organs that people need to stay alive. These are also a number of other organs that work together with these vital organs to ensure that the body is functioning well. Keep reading to learn more about the organs of the body, the various organ systems, and some guidelines on how to maintain optimum health. Organs of the body and their functions The interactive body map below shows the organs of the body and which systems they play a role in. Click on the map to learn more. Vital organs The vital organs are those that a person needs to survive. A problem with any of these organs can quickly become life threatening. It is not possible to live without these organs. That said, in the case of the paired kidneys and lungs, a person can live without one of the pair. The sections below will look at the five vital organs in more detail. Brain The brain is the body’s control center. It forms the core of the central nervous system by creating, sending, and processing nerve impulses, thoughts, emotions, physical sensations, and more. The skull encloses the brain, protecting it from injury. Neurologists are doctors who study the nervous system. Over time, they have identified numerous parts of the brain, including systems within the brain that function similarly to independent organs. The brain is made up of three main subparts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brainstem. Within these areas, there are several key components of the brain that, together with the spinal cord, comprise the central nervous system. The major areas of the central nervous system include: The medulla: This is the lowest part of the brainstem. It helps control heart and lung function. The pons: Located above the medulla in the brainstem, this area helps control eye and facial movement. The spinal cord: Extended from the base of the brain and down the center of the back, the spinal cord helps with many automatic functions, such as reflexes. It also sends messages to and from the brain. The parietal lobe: Situated in the middle of the brain, the parietal lobe supports the identification of objects and spatial reasoning. It also plays a role in interpreting pain and touch signals. The frontal lobe: The frontal lobe, which is located in the front of the head, is the largest section of the brain. It plays a role in many conscious functions, including personality and movement. It also helps the brain interpret smells. The occipital lobes: Positioned near the back of the brain, the occipital lobe primarily interprets vision signals. The temporal lobes: Located on either side of the brain, the temporal lobes play a role in numerous functions, including speech, scent recognition, and short-term memory. The brain’s two halves are called the right and left hemispheres. The corpus callosum connects these two hemispheres. Heart The heartTrusted Source is the most important organ of the circulatory system, which helps deliver blood to the body. It works with the lungs to add oxygen to blood and pump this freshly oxygenated blood through the blood vessels and around the body. The heart also has an electrical system within. Electrical impulses within the heart help ensure that it beats with a consistent rhythm and proper rate. The heart rate increases when the body needs more blood, such as during intense exercise. It decreases during times of rest. The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria, and the two lower chambers are called ventricles. Blood flows into the right atrium from the veins of the heart and body (except the lungs), then it flows into the right ventricle. From there, it flows into the pulmonary artery, which has branches that reach the lungs. The lungs then oxygenate the blood. This oxygenated blood travels from the lungs, through pulmonary veins that lead back and join together, to the left atrium, and then through the left ventricle. From there, the heart pumps the blood through an artery that branches to distribute blood to itself and other body parts (except the lungs). The heart has four valves that ensure that blood flows in the right direction. The heart valves are: the tricuspid valve the pulmonary valve the mitral valve the aortic valve Learn more about the heart here. Lungs The lungs work with the heart to oxygenate blood. They do this by filtering the air a person breathes, then removing excess carbon dioxide in exchange for oxygen. Several parts of the lungs help the body take in air, filter it, and then oxygenate the blood. These are: The left and right bronchi: The trachea splits into these tubes, which extend into the lungs and have branches. These smaller bronchi split into even smaller tubes called bronchioles. The alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles. They work like balloons, expanding when a person inhales and contracting when they exhale. The blood vessels: There are numerous blood vessels in the lungs for carrying blood to and from the heart. With extensive medical care, a person can live without one lung, but they cannot survive with no lungs. The diaphragm, which is a thick band of muscle directly under the lungs, helps the lungs expand and contract when a person breathes. Learn more about the lungs here. Liver The liver is the most important organ of the metabolic system. It helps convert nutrients into usable substances, detoxifies certain substances, and filters blood coming from the digestive tract through a vein before it joins venous blood flow from other parts of the body. Oxygenated blood reaches the liver via an artery. The majority of liver mass is in the upper right side of the abdomen, just under the rib cage. The liver plays many roles in digestion and filtering the blood, including: producing bile helping the body filter out toxic substances, including alcohol, drugs, and harmful metabolites regulating blood levels of various important chemicals, including amino acids making cholesterol removing some bacteria from the blood making some immune factors clearing bilirubin from the blood regulating the process of blood clotting, so that a person does not bleed too much and does not develop dangerous blood clots The liver partners with the gallbladder to deliver bile to the small intestine. The liver pours bile into the gallbladder, which then stores and later releases the bile when the body needs it to help with digestion. A person can live without portions of their liver, but the liver itself is vital for life. Learn more about the liver here. Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs, and each is about the size of a fist. They are located on either side of the back, protected inside of the lower part of the rib cage. They help filter blood and remove waste from the body. Blood flows from the renal artery into the kidneys. Each kidney contains about a millionTrusted Source tiny units for filtration known as nephrons. They help filter waste to the urine and then return the filtered blood to the body through the renal vein. The kidneys also produce urine when they remove waste from the blood. Urine flows out of the kidneys through the ureters, then down to the urinary bladder. A person can live with just one kidney. When a person is experiencing severe kidney failure, dialysis can filter the blood until they get a kidney transplant or their kidney recovers some function. Some people need to undergo hemodialysis long term. Learn more about the kidneys here. Non-vital organs Non-vital organs are those that a person can survive without. However, this does not mean that conditions affecting these organs are never life threatening or dangerous. Many infections and cancers in non-vital organs are life threatening, especially without prompt treatment. Injuries to non-vital organs may also affect vital organs, such as when a gallstone undermines liver function. The sections below will outline the body’s non-vital organs in more detail. Gallbladder Small and pear shaped, the gallbladder sits in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, just under the liver. It contains cholesterol, bile salts, bile, and bilirubin. In a healthy person, the liver releases bile into the gallbladder, which the gallbladder stores and then releases to travel down the common bile duct into the small intestine to aid digestion. However, some people develop gallstones that block the gallbladder or biliary tree, causing intense pain and interfering with digestion. Also, this can sometimes interfere with liver or pancreas function. Learn about some potential gallbladder issues here. Pancreas Located in the upper left portion of the abdomen, the pancreas has two important roles: It functions as both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland. As an exocrine gland, the pancreas produces enzymes a person needs to help digest their food and convert it into energy. Those enzymes include amylase, lipase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin. In its role as an endocrine gland, the pancreas also produces and releases insulin, which helps the body remove glucose from the blood and convert it into energy. Problems with insulin can lead to a dangerously high level of blood glucose and the onset of diabetes. The pancreas also produces and releases glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels. The main pancreatic duct connects to the common bile duct, which flows from the liver and gallbladder. Therefore, problems within the biliary tree, liver, or gallbladder may also affect the pancreas. Learn more about the pancreas here. Stomach The stomach is a J shaped organ near the top of the abdomen. Food begins its journey to the stomach soon after a person swallows. The food moves down from the throat and into the esophagus. The stomach is located at the end of the esophagus. The muscles of the stomach help it break down and digest food. Within its lumen lining, certain regions of the stomach also produce enzymes that help digest food. The enzyme pepsin, for example, breaks down proteins so that they can become amino acids. The stomach also helps store chyme until it moves to the intestines. Chyme refers to food that has mixed with stomach secretions. Anatomists usually divide the stomach into five subparts. These are: The cardia: Located just beneath the esophagus, this portion of the stomach includes the cardiac sphincter. The sphincter prevents food from flowing back up the esophagus or into the mouth. The fundus: This is situated to the left of the cardia and underneath the diaphragm. The body: Food begins breaking down in the body, which is also the largest part of the stomach. The antrum: This is the lower part of the stomach. It contains partially digested food before it flows to the small intestine. The pylorus: This portion of the stomach connects to the small intestine. It includes a muscle called the pyloric sphincter, which controls when and how much stomach content flows into the small intestine. Intestines The intestines are a group of tubes that help filter out waste, absorb water and certain electrolytes, and digest food. Partially digested food first travels through the small intestine, which comprises three parts: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileumTrusted Source. Most digestion and absorption of food happens here. Food then becomes feces as it travels within and through the large intestine. This begins with the cecum, extends to the rest of colon, and ends with the rectum. The rectum is the last stop for feces before expulsion occurs from the anus. Organ systems Doctors usually list dozens of organs, though the definition of an organ varies from expert to expert. Most organs play a role in organ systems, which work together to perform specific functions. The sections below will outline the body’s organ systems in more detail. Nervous system The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system, which works to process and send nerve signals, interpret information, and produce conscious thought. The portion of nervous system that communicates with the central nervous system is called the peripheral nervous system. Overall, the peripheral and central nervous systems also include an extensive network of neurons. Located throughout the body, these fibrous bundles send information about sensation, temperature, and pain. The nervous system helps the body regulate every function, including every other organ system. For instance, the stomach releases the hormone ghrelin, which signals to the brain that it is time to eat. This causes feelings of hunger and encourages a person to eat, which leads to the beginning of the process of digestion. The nervous system integrates with virtually every other part of the body. For example, nerve fibers in the hand tell the brain when there is an injury in that area. Meanwhile, nerves in the skin relay information about external temperature. This may cause the brain to initiate involuntary responses that control body temperature, such as sweating or shivering. Also, other nerves interact with muscle, which helps coordinate movement. Learn more about the central nervous system here. Reproductive system The reproductive system includes the organs that enable a person to reproduce and experience sexual pleasure. In females, the reproductive system also supports the growth of a fetus. The reproductive system works closely with other organs and organ systems. For example, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland help regulate the production and release of hormones such as estrogen and testosterone. The male reproductive system organsTrusted Source include: the testes the epididymis the vas deferens the ejaculatory ducts the prostate gland the seminal vesicles the penis the bulbourethral glands The female reproductive system organsTrusted Source include: the mammary glands in the breasts the ovaries the fallopian tubes the uterus the vagina the vulva the clitoris a system of various glands, such as the Bartholin glands, which help lubricate the vagina the cervix Skin The skin is the body’s largest organ. It is part of the integumentary system, which includes skin, hair, nails, and fat. The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature, protect the body from dangerous pathogens, make vitamin D from sunlight, and provide sensory input. The skin comprises three layers: The epidermis: This is the outer layer of skin. It contains three types of cells. Squamous cells are the outer layer of skin, which the body constantly sheds. Basal cells are the next layer, located under the squamous cells. Melanocytes produce melanin, which is skin pigment. The more melanin the melanocytes produce, the darker a person’s skin is. The dermis: This is the middle layer of skin, located under the epidermis. It contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, nerves, sebaceous glands, and fibroblasts. A flexible protein called collagen holds the dermis together. The subcutaneous fat layer: This is the deepest layer of the skin. It helps keep the body warm and reduces the risk of injury by absorbing heavy blows. Muscular system The muscular system includes a vast network of muscles. There are three types of muscles: Skeletal muscles: These are voluntary muscles, which means that a person can decide when to move them. The biceps and triceps are examples of skeletal muscles. Cardiac muscles: These are involuntary muscles that help the heart pump blood. Smooth muscles: These are also involuntary muscles. Smooth muscles line the bladder, intestines, and stomach. Endocrine system The endocrine system is a network of glands throughout the body. These glands release important chemicals called hormones, which help regulate the function of virtually every organ and organ system in the body. For example, progesterone helps regulate the menstrual cycle and plays an important role in sustaining a pregnancy. The endocrine system includes several major glands, including: the pancreas the thyroid the adrenal glands the pituitary the parathyroid the thyroid the hypothalamus the pineal gland the ovaries the testes Immune system The immune system helps the body prevent infections and fights them off when they do occur. Many organs play a role in the immune system. For example, the skin prevents dangerous pathogens from entering the body, and the salivary glands release saliva that can help break down some dangerous sources of infection in food. The lymphatic system plays a key role in the immune system by releasing lymphocytes that fight disease. There are many lymph nodes throughout the body. Some people notice that their lymph nodes enlarge when they get sick. Digestive system The digestive systemTrusted Source is the group of organs that digest food, as well as the various structures within that release substances to aid digestion and absorption. It includes: the mouth the esophagus the salivary glands the gallbladder the liver the pancreas the stomach the small and large intestines the appendix the rectum the anus Circulatory system The circulatory system includes the many blood vessels that circulate blood throughout the body. It includes veins, arteries, capillaries, venules, and arterioles. The lymphatic system is also part of the circulatory system. It helps maintain the body’s balance of fluid by collecting excess fluid and other particles from the blood. Lymph nodes are present within this system. Summary Each organ in the body is its own complex system, made up of numerous smaller parts. Many organs also depend on several other body parts. For example, to properly breathe, the lungs must work with the nose, mouth, throat, windpipe, and sinuses. This complexity of each organ and organ system means that some doctors choose to specialize in a single organ or organ system. For example, cardiologists treat heart issues, while pulmonologists study the lungs. Anyone who thinks that they have a problem with one of their organs or organ systems should see a specialist or ask a healthcare provider for a referral.

Respiratory diseases affect females and males differently, study says

The impact of breathing diesel exhaust fumes may be more severe for females than males, according to new research that will be presented at the European Respiratory Society International Congress in Barcelona, Spain. Researchers looked for changes in people's blood brought about by exposure to diesel exhaust. In both females and males, they found changes in components of the blood related to inflammation, infection and cardiovascular disease, but they found more changes in females than males. The research was presented by Dr Hemshekhar Mahadevappa, from the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada and was a collaboration between two research groups led by Professor Neeloffer Mookherjee at the University of Manitoba and Professor Chris Carlsten at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. We already know that there are sex differences in lung diseases such as asthma and respiratory infections. Our previous research showed that breathing diesel exhaust creates inflammation in the lungs and has an impact on how the body deals with respiratory infections. In this study, we wanted to look for any effects in the blood and how these differ in females and males." Dr Hemshekhar Mahadevappa, University of Manitoba The study involved ten volunteers, five female and five male, who were all healthy non-smokers. Each volunteer spent four hours breathing filtered air and four hours breathing air containing diesel exhaust fumes at three different concentrations – 20, 50 and 150 micrograms of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) per cubic meter – with a four-week break in between each exposure. The current European Union annual limit value for PM2.5 is 25 micrograms per cubic meter, but much higher peaks are common in many cities. Volunteers donated blood samples 24 hours after each exposure and the researchers made detailed examinations of the volunteers' blood plasma. Plasma is the liquid component of the blood that carries blood cells as well as hundreds of proteins and other molecules around the body. Using a well-established analysis technology called liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, the researchers looked for changes in the levels of different proteins following exposure to diesel exhaust and compared the changes in females and males. Related Stories Researchers examine the effect of cumulative exposure to air pollutants with lung cancer diagnosis Research shows a correlation between air pollution and heart attacks in non-smokers Men exposed to industrial air pollution exhibit sperm mitochondrial DNA deletions Comparing the plasma samples, the researchers found levels of 90 proteins that were distinctly different between female and male volunteers following exposure to diesel exhaust. Among the proteins that differed between females and males, were some that are known to play a role in inflammation, damage repair, blood clotting, cardiovascular disease and the immune system. Some of these differences became clearer when volunteers were exposed to the higher levels of diesel exhaust. Professor Mookherjee explained: "These are preliminary findings, however they show that exposure to diesel exhaust has different effects in female bodies compared to male and that could indicate that air pollution is more dangerous for females than males. "This is important as respiratory diseases such as asthma are known to effect females and males differently, with females more likely to suffer severe asthma that does not respond to treatments. Therefore, we need to know a lot more about how females and males respond to air pollution and what this means for preventing, diagnosing and treating their respiratory disease." The researchers plan to continue studying the functions of these proteins to better understand their role in the difference between female and male immune responses. Professor Zorana Andersen from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, is Chair of the European Respiratory Society Environment and Health Committee and was not involved in the research. She said: "We know that exposure to air pollution, especially diesel exhaust, is a major risk factor in diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. There is very little we can do as individuals to avoid beathing polluted air, so we need governments to set and enforce limits on air pollutants. "We also need to understand how and why air pollution contributes to poor health. This study offers some important insight into how the body reacts to diesel exhaust and how that may differ between females and males." Source: European Lung Foundation

Dolutegravir-based regimen more effective for treating pregnant people with HIV-1

Dolutegravir-based antiretroviral therapies (ART) for HIV-1 are more effective for pregnant people than some other ART regimens commonly used in the U.S. and Europe, according to a study led by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health researchers. The study, published online in NEJM on September 1, 2022, showed that pregnant people who took dolutegravir-based regimens had a high probability of being virally suppressed at delivery. There were no observed differences in the risks of adverse birth outcomes (preterm birth, low birth weight, small for gestational age, or neonatal death) between dolutegravir-based regimens and the other contemporary regimens. Globally, a dolutegravir-based regimen is currently recommended for treating HIV, and this is the first study to directly compare regimens including dolutegravir to other antiretroviral regimens, such as raltegravir-based regimens, that are also listed as 'Preferred' in U.S. perinatal guidelines." Kunjal Patel, senior research scientist, Department of Epidemiology, Harvard Chan School and lead author of the study Related Stories How is the COVID pandemic affecting perinatal mental health? Case report describes clinical manifestation of monkeypox, SARS-CoV-2, and HIV coinfection Genetic screening before pregnancy detects the risk in 44% of couples Dolutegravir, a more recently approved antiretroviral drug, is part of a once-a-day regimen that has been shown to be more effective, easier to tolerate, and less likely to create new drug resistance in people with HIV-1 compared with other antiretroviral drugs. However, limited data have been available about its effectiveness and safety in pregnancy compared with regimens that commonly have been used during pregnancy in the U.S. and Europe. In the current observational study, the researchers compared dolutegravir use in pregnancy with atazanavir/ritonavir, darunavir/ritonavir, and raltegravir antiviral regimens that are currently classified as "Preferred" for use in pregnancy in the U.S. About half of the participants started ART before conception. At delivery, 96.7% of pregnancies of participants who received dolutegravir were virally suppressed, whereas those of participants who took atazanavir/ritonavir or raltegravir had viral suppression of 84.0% and 89.2%, respectively. "We think the observed differences are due to dolutegravir's ability to rapidly decrease viral loads and its ease of use as part of a once-daily regimen that's available as a fixed-dose combination," said Patel. "Our results highlight the continual need for systematic studies that compare new antiretroviral regimens with those already in clinical practice to help inform the evolution of guidelines and clinical practice over time."

Pregnant women exposed to chemicals that can increase cancer risk and harm child development

Pregnant women in the U.S. are being exposed to chemicals like melamine, cyanuric acid, and aromatic amines that can increase the risk of cancer and harm child development, according to researchers at UC San Francisco and Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Melamine and cyanuric acid were found in nearly all study participants' samples, but the highest levels were found in women of color and those with greater exposure to tobacco. Four aromatic amines that are commonly used in products containing dyes and pigments were also found in nearly all pregnant participants. People can be exposed to melamine and aromatic amines in a variety of ways: through the air they breathe, by eating contaminated food or ingesting household dust, as well as from drinking water or by using products that contain plastic, dyes, and pigments. "These chemicals are of serious concern due to their links to cancer and developmental toxicity, yet they are not routinely monitored in the United States," said Tracey J. Woodruff, PhD, a professor of obstetrics, gynecology and reproductive medicine who directs the UCSF Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment, and is the co-senior author of the study published August 30, 2022, in Chemosphere. Melamine and its major byproduct, cyanuric acid, are each high production chemicals that exceed 100 million pounds per year in this country alone. When exposure to these chemicals happens together, they can be more toxic than either one alone. Melamine is found in dishware, plastics, flooring, kitchen counters, and pesticides; cyanuric acid is used as a disinfectant, plastic stabilizer, and cleaning solvent in swimming pools; aromatic amines are found in hair dye, mascara, tattoo ink, paint, tobacco smoke, and diesel exhaust. Melamine was recognized as a kidney toxicant after baby formula and pet food poisoning incidents in 2004, 2007, and 2008 that caused several deaths as well as kidney stones and urinary tract obstruction in some people. Additional animal experiments suggest melamine reduces brain function. Related Stories High consumption of ultra-processed foods linked to increased risk of colorectal cancer in men Gothenburg scientists discover possible new cancer treatment target Study provides a comprehensive view of the genomics of all childhood ALL subtypes For their study, researchers measured 45 chemicals associated with cancer and other risks using new methods to capture chemicals or chemical traces in urine samples from a small but diverse group of 171 women who are part of the National Institutes of Health's Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Program. The study period covered 2008 to 2020. The 171 women came from California, Georgia, Illinois, New Hampshire, New York, and Puerto Rico. About one-third (34%) were white, 40% were Latina, 20% were Black, 4% were Asians, and the remaining 3% were from other or multiple racial groups. Prior studies on melamine were conducted among pregnant women in Asian countries or limited to non-pregnant people in the U.S. It's disconcerting that we continue to find higher levels of many of these harmful chemicals in people of color." Jessie Buckley, PhD, study co-senior author, associate professor at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

Medical latest news Leukemia drug successfully disrupts HER2-positive brain metastasis in animal studies

In animal studies led by researchers at Duke Cancer Institute, a drug approved to treat leukemia successfully disrupted the ability of HER2-positive breast cancer tumors from colonizing the brain. The finding, appearing online Aug. 30 in the journal Cell Reports, provides evidence for human trials and suggests a potential new approach to derail one of the main ways that breast cancer turns deadly. We have made huge strides in treating HER2-positive breast cancers, but when tumors escape the therapies, they often metastasize to the brain." Ann Marie Pendergast, Ph.D., senior author, professor and vice chair of the Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology at Duke University School of Medicine Related Stories Abdominal obesity increases risk of pancreatic cancer Study provides a comprehensive view of the genomics of all childhood ALL subtypes Discovery paves the way for specific therapies for common form of childhood brain and spine tumor "When brain metastasis occurs, treatments are unsuccessful either because the tumors have developed resistance, or the therapies cannot penetrate the blood-brain barrier," Pendergast said. "This remains a devastating diagnosis for patients." Pendergast and colleagues looked at how HER2 promotes breast cancer growth, particularly after becoming resistant to targeted treatments that have been highly successful in prolonging lives. The HER2 protein is a driving force in 30% of breast cancers, with approximately 45% of these leading to brain metastases. The researchers focused on a pair of enzymes called ABL1 and ABL2 kinases that regulate the expression of HER2. The researchers found that these kinases play a critical role in creating the conditions that allow HER2 to accumulate on the surface of breast cancer cells, fueling breast cancer tumor metastasis. Experimenting in mice, Pendergast and her team were able to disrupt the ABL kinases using a leukemia drug called asciminib. A kinase inhibitor, the drug is not impeded by the blood-brain barrier in tumor-bearing mice and interferes with the ABL kinases' signaling mechanism. By blocking the ABL signaling network, the therapy keeps the HER2 protein from accumulating in the breast cancer cells and shuts down their process for fueling the proliferation and spread of cancer cells. "These findings support the use of ABL kinase inhibitors for the treatment of HER2-positive brain metastasis," Pendergast said.

Medical latest news State-level economic policy associated with reduction in HIV risk behavior among single mothers

FINDINGS UCLA research finds that a refundable State-level Earned Income Tax Credit (SEITC) of 10% or above the Federal EITC was associated with a 21% relative risk reduction in reported behavior that could put single mothers at high risk for becoming infected with HIV during the previous year. Also, a 10 percentage-point increase in SEITC was linked to a 38% relative reduction in the same reported high-risk behavior the previous year. Related Stories Nasal spray highly effective against HIV and SARS-CoV-2 in animal models Researchers receive $3.25 million NIH grant to better understand the oral manifestations of HIV Scientists receive $3.9 million NIH grant to eradicate HIV from the brain BACKGROUND Previous research has found a relationship between poverty and sexually transmitted infections such as HIV. Poverty, low-wage jobs, income inequality, and other economic structural factors may spread sexually transmitted infections by creating high-risk partner pools, facilitating transactional sex, and undermining women's sexual agency. METHOD The researchers used data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (2002-2018) and state-level data from the University of Kentucky Center for Poverty Research to conduct a multi-state, multi-year analysis. IMPACT These findings demonstrate the impact of anti-poverty policy interventions such as providing cash aid to those in need. In this case, the reduction in HIV risk behavior was what would be expected for two or more hours of intensive HIV risk-reduction counseling, which few low-income single mothers can readily access. Thus, SEITC policy may be a strategy to reduce HIV among women with low socioeconomic status, particularly single mothers. AUTHORS Dr. Kimberly Danae Cauley Narain and Nina Harawa of UCLA.

New treatment may be effective in addressing the long-term effects of preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a condition that affects the placenta during pregnancy and is dangerous for both the fetus and the mother. Scientists from the Institut Pasteur, Inserm and the CNRS have proposed a new therapy, tested in two rodent models, that corrects the defects identified in placental cells, and restores placental and fetal weight. The treatment successfully lowers blood pressure in the mother and resolves the characteristic preeclampsia symptoms of excess protein in urine and cardiovascular abnormalities. The research was published on July 30 in the journal Redox Biology. Preeclampsia is a placental dysfunction that affects approximately 2 to 8% of pregnant women worldwide. It can have fatal complications, with more than 50,000 maternal deaths each year and indirectly more than a million fetal or perinatal deaths worldwide. The primary symptoms of preeclampsia are arterial hypertension, proteinuria (increased levels of protein in the urine), abnormal coagulation in the placenta, cardiovascular abnormalities in the mother and fetal growth restriction. Preeclampsia can also have long-term effects on the cardiovascular system, brain, liver and kidneys of the mother several years after pregnancy. The current first-line treatment for preeclampsia is limited and involves the preventive use of aspirin for at-risk patients. This treatment reduces the procoagulant state in the placenta and partly relieves pressure on the vascular network. Preeclampsia is characterized by a defective placenta caused by trophoblast dysfunction. Trophoblasts are specific cells in the placenta that help organize and manage the vascular network, allowing the provision of oxygen, nutrients and other elements that are essential for fetal growth. At the molecular level, preeclampsia is characterized by an uncontrolled increase in oxidative stress, with excessive production of various reactive species including reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. There is a genetic component: the first gene to be identified as being implicated in the genetic forms of preeclampsia was the STOX1 transcription factor, which controls the expression of thousands of genes, especially those involved in the production of nitric oxide (NO). In a transgenic mouse model, high accumulation of STOX1 in the placenta induced a preeclampsia-like syndrome. In preeclampsia, nitric oxide, a powerful vasodilator that dilates blood vessels to promote blood flow to the placenta, is mobilized to produce potentially toxic molecules (nitrosative stress) and its levels become insufficient in the placental vascular network, affecting trophoblast function and the vascular network and destabilizing other reactive species. This creates a vicious circle and causes uncontrollable oxidative/nitrosative stress with multiple complications, also affecting maternal blood vessel cells, with potentially fatal consequences. Genetics & Genomics eBook Compilation of the top interviews, articles, and news in the last year. Download a copy today NO is produced by a family of enzymes known as nitric oxide synthases (NOSs). Finding a way of restoring NO production in the placenta via NOSs could represent an effective new therapy to treat preeclampsia. A years-long collaboration between the team led by Dr. Daniel Vaiman (Institut Cochin, Inserm/CNRS/Université Paris Cité) and the team led by Dr. Miria Ricchetti (Department of Developmental & Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur/CNRS) with Dr. Laurent Chatre, and more recently an American team from Mississippi, gave rise to a potential solution. The scientists' research was based on trophoblasts overexpressing STOX1 and on two rodent models of preeclampsia, one mimicking early-onset forms via placental overexpression of STOX1 and the other mimicking late-onset forms by partial occlusion of the lower abdominal aorta. The research revealed a cascade of events that ultimately led the scientists to propose a new therapy. Treating trophoblasts with BH4 (or tetrahydrobiopterin, a cofactor that stabilizes the NOS enzyme producing NO) corrected the defects identified in these cells, restoring production of NO rather than potentially toxic molecules. More importantly, administering BH4 to the two preclinical rodent models restored placental and fetal weight. Finally, in the early-onset STOX1 preclinical model with significant arterial hypertension and proteinuria, the BH4 treatment corrected blood pressure, excess protein in urine, and cardiovascular abnormalities in the mother. The results even suggest that the treatment may be effective in addressing the long-term effects of preeclampsia on mothers (vascular abnormalities in the brain, kidneys, heart and liver). This research is the first step towards the development of a therapy for preeclampsia. The scientists also performed genetic (transcriptomic) analyses of placentas treated with BH4 and showed that it corrects the expression of several genes disrupted by excess STOX1 in a different way from the deregulation induced by aspirin in the placenta. In conclusion, the scientists propose that a treatment combining BH4 and aspirin could be the ultimate therapeutic solution for many cases of preeclampsia. This hypothesis needs to be validated in clinical trials.